AP HuG · Unit 2

Migration Concepts in AP HuG push, pull, and counter-flows.

Migration is one of the most-tested concepts on the AP HuG exam. This guide covers push/pull factors, the types of migration, and counter migration — the concept that catches most students.

Updated May 2026Part of AP Human Geography Maps

Push vs. pull factors

Push factors

Conditions that drive people OUT of their current location — war, famine, lack of jobs, political persecution.

Pull factors

Conditions that attract people TO a new location — jobs, family, climate, political stability.

Intervening obstacles

Things between origin and destination that block or alter the migration — borders, mountains, money.

Intervening opportunities

Opportunities encountered along the way that change the destination — a job in a transit city.

Types of migration

Voluntary vs. forced: voluntary = chosen (jobs, family); forced = compelled (war, slavery).

Internal vs. international: internal = within a country; international = across borders.

Step migration: a series of smaller moves toward a final destination (rural → small town → big city).

Chain migration: one family member migrates, then sponsors others to follow.

Counter migration: migration in the OPPOSITE direction of a dominant flow — e.g., return migration from US to Mexico in the 2010s. The AP exam tests this concept directly.

Frequently asked questions

Quick answers — written by humans, not a chatbot.

What is counter migration?

Migration in the reverse direction of a dominant flow. Example: from 2009–2014, net migration between the US and Mexico flipped — more people returned to Mexico than came north.

How does the AP exam test migration?

Unit 2 stems usually present a push/pull scenario and ask you to identify the factor type. FRQ 2 (data-based) often uses a migration data table.

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